Sponsors Media Partners isiZulu isiXhosa Sesotho Xitsonga Sepedi Afrikaans English

Dumisani Sibiya, second-born son of Khethekile and Mshiyeni, was born in 1976 in Nquthu, Northern KwaZulu-Natal. He holds a Masters degree in Publishing Studies and is currently working towards a PhD in African literature. Until recently, when he joined Macmillan Publishers, Sibiya taught African Literature and Media Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand. His debut novel, currently prescribed for grade 10 in KwaZulu-Natal, Kungasa Ngifile (Over my dead body) (Tafelberg Publishers, 2002), won the Sanlam Prize for Youth Literature in 2002, and was a finalist in the MNET Book Prize in 2003 and 2004. His other books include two collections of short stories entitled Izinyembezi (Ilitha, 2003), Amancoko (forthcoming) and an anthology of poetry edited by CD Ntuli, Zibuyile Emasisweni (due to be published by Oxford University Press in December). His books have been highly commended by eminent Zulu professors, among them DBZ Ntuli and CT Msimang. As a student of academic excellence he has been awarded the following scholarships and awards: Murray & Roberts Bursary, Harold & Doris Tothill Bequest Scholarship, Mellon Mentoring Scholarship, Dr Khambule Growing Our Own Timber Programme Award, Vilakazi Memorial Award, Isaac-Moepuli Memorial Award, and ISMA Flior Award. These are mainly for distinctive achievement in both undergraduate and postgraduate studies. "Kuningi osekuzanyiwe ukwenza ngcono nokubeka ezingeni imibhalo yezilimi zaboMdabu base-Afrika kodwa kuze kube manje imibhalo kulezi zilimi isalokhu ibhekene nengwadla. Phakathi kwezinye izindlela esezizanyiwe singabala ukuklomelisa izincwadi, ukushicilela izincwadi yinkampani ethile ngenhloso yokwandisa imibhalo (lolu chungechunge oluye lwaziwe ngegama elithile kuthiwa yisilisi) kanye nokuhluzwa kwemibhalo. Nakuba lokhu kusengasetshenziswa kangconywana ngokuthi kufakwe omunye umfutho, leli phepha liyagcizelela ukuthi kufanele kusetshenziswe izindlela eziningi ukwakha nokuthuthukisa imibhalo yobuciko esezingeni lomhlaba kulezi zilimi. Kule ngxoxo ekuleli phepha kubekwa nemibono ngezinye izindlela ezingasiza ukwenza ngcono isimo semibhalo yobuciko kulezi zilimi zelengabadi." "Several ways have been used to develop and promote literatures in African languages, yet these literatures are still struggling to survive. The tried but tired strategies are literary awards, book series and literary criticism. While these can be revived, this essay calls for a multiple strategic approach to the development and promotion of creative ecriture in these languages. It suggests possible effective strategies that can be used in improving the status of work of art in these languages."

Cry not; try a lot: the development and promotion of African-language literatures* EDM Sibiya Also available as: Ukukhala akusizi; zama okuningi: ukuthuthukiswa kwemibhalo ezilimini zaboMdabu kuleli

Overview Several ways have been used to develop and promote literatures in African languages, yet these literatures are still struggling to survive. The tried but tired strategies are literary awards, book series and literary criticism. While these can be revived, this essay calls for a multiple strategic approach to the development and promotion of creative ecriture in these languages. It suggests possible effective strategies that can be used in improving the status of work of art in these languages. Introduction There is as yet not a large Zulu reading public in so far as works in the vernacular are concerned; but in view of the considerable improvement in educational facilities of late, it is hoped that a large and enthusiastic Zulu reading public will emerge (Bang, 1951:6)1 . The assessment of the consumption of literatures in African Languages in South Africa reveals a state of underdevelopment or, to be more positive, steady development, as expressed in the works of several literary critics for several decades (Bang, 1951; Malan, 1980; Attwell, 1984; Maake, 2000). However, as Maake rigorously argues, the underdevelopment of indigenous literatures cannot be over-emphasised; instead these literatures must be credited for having been able to thrive in social, political and economic conditions that were not necessarily conducive to any form of development. I do not intend discussing conditions under which African languages have had to live and sustain themselves (this has been discussed elsewhere); the focus is, rather, on the analysis of the strategies that have been used to improve indigenous literatures. The reason for doing this is not just to account for their ineffectiveness but also to let the bodies that are concerned with the development and promotion of African-language literatures learn from the prospects and pitfalls of each strategy. These strategies do not only seem to have been overused but also seem to have had a less than remarkable impact on the development of literatures in African languages. The proposal put forward in this argument is that more strategies have to be employed almost simultaneously to improve the status of African languages. The first part of the article gives an analysis of the strategies that have been tried in the past, and shows lessons that can be drawn to make them more effective. I then suggest the way forward as far as the development and promotion of African language literatures is concerned. Tried and tired: developing and promoting indigenous language literatures Since the genesis of creative literature in indigenous languages in the missionary presses in the mid-19th century and the flourishing of local publishing in the early 20th century,2 one of the major hindrances to the development and flourishing of literature in the languages has been the sheer lack of a reading public or of market research, depending on one's perspective on the whole debate. As far as the research goes it appears that this has been the trend in the development of all African-language literature in South Africa, if not the whole continent.3 As Maake (2000) reminds us, hindrances to the flourishing of African languages, where the creative literature is concerned, include religious censorship, conservative publishers who colluded with the Nationalist government, the general censorship entrenched in the Publications Control Act, the corrupt practices of gatekeepers, and Language Boards. Having attributed the lack of readership to poor socio-economic conditions, illiteracy, the lack of reading culture, and infantalisation of literature by Bantu Education, some strategies have been tried to improve the situation. Literary awards There are two major categories of literary prizes: first those that solicit manuscripts, usually administered by a specific publishing company, and those focusing on already published material. The former consciously access and develop literature while the latter is purely for promotion and advertisement of finished products. Despite the good intentions to encourage and reward literary merit, and thus developing authors, they also have pitfalls worth mentioning. The Sanlam Prize for Youth Literature and the Mnet Book Prize,4 to mention but two, grouped together Nguni and Sotho languages instead of having seven different languages. While linguistic relationships of the languages could justify this categorisation, the exclusion of Xitsonga and Tshivenda is purely economical in nature, since publishing is simply a sober appreciation of market requirements. The categorisation is riddled with ironies in that English and Afrikaans are linguistically related (both are Indo-European), yet each forms a category on its own. This is ethically and politically unacceptable in a country whose new constitution and language policy entrench 11 official languages. Also, this differential treatment of languages is suggestive of moneymaking motives rather than pure development and promotion of the so-called historically disadvantaged languages. If, as Nhlanhla Maake5 says, literary awards are generally perceived to "enhance the standard of literature by acknowledging the works of the established and new writer … and … bring to the attention of the market their works", in this context they serve to reflect the unequal linguistic and social politics of the past. In addition to this, literary awards that are specific to African languages are too scant to make any remarkable contribution to the development of literatures in these languages. As Maake (2000:149) comparatively argued, Afrikaans has enjoyed 14 literary awards (since 1914), and English six local prizes - excluding the six it has shared with Afrikaans - while African languages had only an extremely few.6 Where promotion of titles in general is concerned, publishers more often than not do nothing but wait for submission dates. Although this could be justified by the fact that 80% of book publishing in South Africa is educational, this means publishers sporadically publicise books beyond submissions to educational departments. Most if not all publishers have hardly been publishing African-language literature for at least the past four years. In some cases accepted manuscripts have been in press for longer than five years. While this could partly be accounted for by the National Education Department's cut on subsidy for educational material, and has bad implications for educational publishers, it awakened their marketing departments to think of other ways of marketing published titles. The newly-introduced open system of book prescription involves publishers' strategic promotion of titles to compete favourably for service, good quality books, and price. Maake (2000:129) mentions five stages of metamorphosis that mark the development of African-language literatures: the genesis of literature at the missionary presses, the evolution of literary genres from religious works and translations, the adoption of publications by post-Bantu Education Act publishing houses, the emergence of new literary prizes, and the literary empire-building marked by the entry of scholars into publishing. The fact that the emergence of new literary awards is the fourth stage on the list (which was in the early '80s) partly helps explain the unremarkable impact awards seem to have made on the development and promotion of literatures in indigenous languages. The unavailability of numerous awards cannot fully explain the underdevelopment, nor can their sudden availability resolve the predicament. The history and flourishing of Afrikaans literature point to the fact that literature does not rise simply because of literary awards.7 As Phaswane Mpe notes, "literature and publishing are shaped by a complex network of players: publishers and their readers, journalists and other media workers, writers, literary critics …"8 The complexity of roles that several players have to play translates into a complex approach to the development and promotion of literatures in African languages, which is a proposal put forward in this essay. The main defects of language-specific awards, as Nhlanhla Maake shows, are corrupt practices in their administration. As corruption was revealed in the 1990s, these awards began to diminish both in numbers and status. This happened simultaneously with the death of publishers implicated in corruption as well as the very corrupt practices in book prescription procedures.9 (I must mention in passing, though, that corruption still persists; my novel Kungasa Ngifile could not be awarded a prize at Usiba's 2003 prize-giving ceremony because it was believed that I was not a full member of the writers' organisation.) Whether they solicit or "cite" merit, the available awards nowadays seem rather too tired to make a marked impact. But both Mpe and Maake have argued that the underdevelopment of African-language literature cannot be attributed solely to publishers and a lack of sufficient literary awards. There is a need to look at other developmental and promotional strategies. As an anonymous writer asserted in 1951: [I]n the last resort the development of language and literature depends on the practicing and creative writer and on the living, virile and ever developing spoken language of the masses which is an endless stream upon which the capable and original writer drinks, selects and creates.10 Some publishers (Heinemann Southern Africa, Witwatersrand University Press, and Macmillan Southern Africa11 ) have published African-language literature series. The earliest of these is the WUP's Bantu Treasury series, established by the linguist Clement Doke in the 1930s. This particular series published literary works of a very high standard. Most titles in the series are still regarded as great works in their respective languages. The very first collection of modern poetry and the very first modern dramatic text in isiZulu are part of this series - Benedict Wallet Vilakazi's Inkondlo kaZulu (1935) and NNT Ndebele's Ugubudele Namazimuzimu (1937). As Maake would emphasise, the writers in this series "are writers of no small status".12 Vilakazi, for example, is not only still popular but is regarded as one of the greatest poets in isiZulu. SEK Mqhayi is an exceptional poet and novelist in isiXhosa. His historical novel Ityala Lamawele was adapted into a popular television serial which has been broadcast several times. For a reason I have not been able to establish, the Bantu Treasury series has been stopped. Macmillan Southern Africa did not publish African-language literatures until about the late 1980s, when the Uvulindlela (Paving the way) Series was launched.13 As far as isiZulu titles are concerned, there seems to be no work of distinguished merit in the series. For instance, the short stories of AB Shange, KJN Sithole (1990) and Condy Nxaba do not mark any departure from the old themes and styles of writing. Most short stories in the two collections do not mark any departure from the established trends of short fiction writing as exemplified by works of DBZ Ntuli. The series seems to have contributed to the improvement of quantity rather than quality of isiZulu literature. However, as most educational publishers have hardly been publishing literature recently, for the past three years or more the series has not made any significant contribution the development of new material. Whether it is on the brink of a catastrophic death, or just tired and taking a deep breath, I cannot tell. Launched in 1998, Heinemann's Mamela Afrika Series (MAS) has published literature titles in African languages for four years. For whatever reason, the series has not seen a new title since 2001. Whether this demonstrates an approaching death or re-examining strategic approaches to the series, I cannot tell. Maake's (2000:151) observation about new trends in post-apartheid literature in the African languages is applicable to some titles in the series: "with the exception of a tiny minority of works, the trend [in the late 1990s] has swung from extreme censorship to embarrassing political correctness, where some works are published simply because they treat subjects like HIV-Aids, lesbianism and gayism positively, without interrogating them and challenging the readers, or new social constructs." For example, Isithembiso Esilichoboka, depicting abortion, does not confront the complex issues around its legalisation. As Nomvula Maduna observes, the play hardly transcends stereotypical assumptions of womanhood beyond reproductive machines.14 In isiZulu, as with Sepedi titles in the series, the standard of titles varies from one title to the next.15 Bhengu's Mnet Award-winning novel is outstanding, not only according to the young critic Maduna, but also according to some publishers.16 The question of quality can be a slippery one to resolve. For example, Joyce Musi, the then Commissioning Editor of the series, wrote an e-mail to me about my manuscript: "(Y)our manuscript is not publishable … and I endorse it." She suggested that my short stories were rejected on the basis that they had "no moral lessons".17 A different and earlier review had highly recommended them for publication, and the publisher had accepted them.18 Putting an emphasis on moralism to the detriment of creativity seems contradictory, considering the fact that MAS envisages an adult readership. Another apparent contradiction is that, while the series is intended for adult readers, more often than not Heinemann relies on the books being prescribed by the Education Department as a means to promote and sell the titles. Nkosinathi Sithole's short stories, which won the 1997 Ernst van Heerden Creative Writing Award19 , were rejected by one of the reviewers because, as the report suggests, they do not build up to climactic ends. Fortunately I know this reviewer. His awareness of contemporary trends and artistic experimentation in literature is limited, as he has not published a single critical essay or any piece of creative writing. His field of specialisation is second-language teaching and not literature. Therefore the criteria for choosing readers for this series are themselves open to question. Despite all these pitfalls, there are a few things that the series has achieved. One is the broadening of the scope of themes in African-language publishing, even though that does not in itself develop authors' writing skills. Where themes are concerned, there has been a sudden turning to what Maake (2000:151) calls an "embarrassing political correctness". Are we going towards a new doctrinaire spectacular representation of the socio-political situation in the country, in the way South African literature and theatre of English expression were held to be guilty of in the 1970s?20 Two, the series should be commended for the quality of production, with good paper and glossy and attractive covers that are the distinctive feature of the series. Distribution is also professional, and the series has been able to reserve some shelves in some outlets like Exclusive Books. Unfortunately, only a few good authors have emerged, and the envisaged standard - which matches Heinemann International's eminent African Writers Series - does not seem to have materialised. Literary criticism: silence and superficiality In a fairly informal telephonic conversation with a famous isiZulu writer and publisher in 2001, I asked if the writer knew at least five contemporary literary critics in this language. He hardly recollected a single name! Not to mention that he is not one himself, although he holds a doctoral degree! Does this mean he sees no value for literary criticism in his development as a writer? Who, if anyone, is responsible for updating him on contemporary trends in literature? Is he influenced by literatures or criticisms of literatures other than those of isiZulu? Without criticism, how does he develop? I did not pressurise him to respond to these questions; our conversation had nothing to do with the present study. The mentioned writer is only one of numerous writers who not only overlook the value of literary criticism in the development of their careers, but also have never attempted to write critical essays themselves. Although some renowned authors and critics, such as Christian Themba Msimang, have done extensive research on isiZulu literature and language issues in general, the majority of writers do not seem to have realised the value of reading or writing literary criticism. And this is surprising, considering the fact that there are numerous isiZulu creative writers, who are mostly educated elite, teachers and lecturers in particular. They are nonetheless very silent as far as literary criticism is concerned. This constitutes a failure to carry out their duty to research and publish. Where reviewing is concerned, there was only one critic, GS Zulu, who wrote reviews, in the newspaper Ilanga. One should not forget to appreciate this year's developments in Isolezwe, an isiZulu daily, which has just started publishing reviews. This is generally the trend with all African languages. Universities have not engaged in literary criticism as energetically as one would have anticipated (Maake, 2000:146). Among a few scholars who have contributed through criticism towards higher standards in literature are BW Vilakazi, RRR Dhlomo, CLS Nyembezi, HC Groenewald, CF Swanepoel and DP Kunene. In most cases, as Nhlanhla Maake (2000:146) notes, some universities have produced graduates and graduate teachers who have not contributed to literary criticism at all. A department of African languages in one historically black university has produced masters and doctoral degrees as though they were loaves of bread in a bakery, and most of the dissertations and theses produced leave a lot to be desired.21 Under such claustrophobic conditions, it is highly unlikely that African-language literature will develop or benefit much from literary criticism. Where criticism of isiZulu books is concerned, nowadays one can hardly recollect more than two dominant names. Not out of failure of memory but because there is not much to recall. Those in academic institutions hardly write literary critiques. All they do is mostly freelance work to supplement their income. Had they perhaps tried, one would have been tempted to argue that they are now tired. Those who tried their best to write critiques are having a deserved rest six feet under the ground.22 Hard work and commitment from a few contemporary literary scholars make a mark that is hardly more than an ant's weight. Because of this it seems to me that criticism has never been tried. "Cry not; try a lot" Bang's words quoted at the beginning of this paper and Maake's lament in the new millennium point to the complexity and seriousness of the problem. As Mpe's 1999 case study of the famous Heinemann African Writers Series demonstrates, there are various complex elements that play a role in the shaping of literature, namely writers and critics, publishers and readers, researchers and promoters. Good quality or literary merit does not guarantee readership. Readers are not given. Any book buying and book reading habits depend largely on extra-literary factors such as promotion. As Thomas Woll23 shows, there are different perspectives to the question. According to publishers, book reviews, price, covers and jackets, publicity and promotion are vital with regard to the financial viability of the title. On the other hand, research demonstrates that people's decisions are influenced mostly by the subject of the book (44 percent) and the author's reputation (24 percent), while price, cover art and endorsements count as little as two percent (Woll, 1998:164). This suggests that promotional strategies need to include the readers themselves in one way or another. A publisher driven simply by "a sober appreciation of market requirements"24 needs to pay serious attention to promotional strategies if it is to compete well in the industry. Strategies employed in the promotion of literature, I would like to suggest specifically for African languages, should be numerous and applied simultaneous, including the already tried strategies. All the strategies discussed so far reveal, in one way or another, some bouts of fatigue. The tried but tired strategies should nevertheless keep running, harder than before, until they break the fatigue barrier, even though that will require a lot of energy, dedication, cultural patriotism and financial resources. African-language writers, critics, researchers and bodies concerned with the development and promotion of their languages and their literatures should not lament underdevelopment, but rather start trying to do something about it. They have to be committed to the development of their languages. Authors should not just publish and wait for royalties to come to their bank accounts. Their role in popularising their creative work cannot be underestimated.25 They do not need to be established literary figures; they can establish themselves by haunting the public with their faces and, of course, good work. As Maake rightly notes, football and rugby should not overshadow the public mind, writers' achievements should be publicised: [The] writer must be raised to the same profile as sportsmen and women. Stickers, posters, banners and all visual advertisement must not be spared in achieving this goal, and no space must be regarded as too vulgar or too sacrosanct for the display of our literature.26 Radio is a tried and successful strategy for the development and promotion of African-language literatures. This is one strategy whose contribution is often ignored by a significant number of prolific contemporary critics, namely, Phaswane Mpe, Dumisani Ntshangase, Sibusiso Nyembezi and Nhlanhla Maake. As I have argued elsewhere, quite a number of isiZulu published literary titles have developed from radio plays, while some texts have been adapted to radio drama.27 Eminent writers like VM Bhengu, MT Mkhize, DBZ Ntuli, EM Damane, Sibusiso Nyembezi, to mention but a few, either began their writing career as radio writers or their works have been made classical by radio. The case of Nyembezi is a telling one: his most popular novel, Inkinsela YaseMgungundlovu, is a fine example. While critics such as VVO Mkhize28 have suggested that Nyembezi's comic style, and his tendency to get other people to read and comment on his book, make him a great novelist, I would like to strongly argue that this assessment underscores the extra-literary factors that have contributed to the carving of the classic out of Nyembezi's novel. The radio version of the novel was broadcast within two years of its publication in 1960. Since then it has enjoyed several re-stages in the "theatre of the microphone", as Granville Barker fondly calls radio drama. Another writer who exemplifies radio's success in building writers' reputations is VM Bhengu. Owing to his long-established reputation as a radio dramatist, Bhengu's very first original novel, Itshwele Lempangele, sold extremely well even though it was not a prescribed reader. Reviews in all South African newspapers are likely to raise the status of literatures in African languages. Many readers of these newspapers can read one or more of these languages. It will remind those who still think English is the only language, that their own languages are still alive. For no-African-language readers, reviews are likely to trigger more translations from indigenous languages into other languages. Publishers should also consider formal launches, which are non-existent, of books in these languages. To increase the accessibility of these literatures they must be made available in most bookshops in the country. Writers and bodies concerned with the development and promotion of African languages should entice people with love for their languages. The government should demonstrate its commitment by rooting out corruption in the awarding of writers' grants by National Arts Council. In addition it should put more money into making these languages "real" official languages, if partly to realise the actual African Renaissance. Conclusion Owing to the scope of this essay, nothing could be exhausted or even extensively discussed. A lot of issues remain untouched. Nothing has been said about the NGOs such as the Centre for the Book in Cape Town (which has also shown some commitment to the development of African-language literature in the country) and Timbila, and magazines such as Drum. The latter, for example, regularly publishes short stories, usually by budding authors. Its contribution warrants a full-blown paper, if not a whole dissertation. One should also not forget to mention African-language newspapers such as Ilanga (isiZulu), Leselinyana (Sesotho), Koranta ea Becoana (Setswana) and Imvo Zabantsundu (isiXhosa). Perhaps we need a few more newspapers in indigenous languages. These are strategies that can be used simultaneously to haunt the public mind, but by no means at the expense of creativity and literary merit. We hope that publishers will revive series and establish new ones; some should change their approach to literature and choose new reviewers instead of expecting the old ones to change their taste for literature. We also hope they will not say they are tired for they slept very late the previous night trying to meet a deadline for submission to the Education Department, when their material actually targets adult readership. Selected reading list    Bower, C. 1998. Educational Publishing in South Africa. Unpublished paper presented to a class of Publishing Studies students, Department of African Literature, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.    Evans, N and M Seeber (eds). 2000. The Politics of Publishing in South Africa. London: Hogler Ehling Publishing.    Granville-Barker, H. 1956. On Dramatic Method. New York: Hill & Wang. Maake, N. 2000. Publishing and Perishing: Books, People and Reading in African Languages in South Africa. In N Evans and M Seeber (eds) (2000).    Mpe, P. 1999. The Role of the Heinemann African Writers Series in the Development and Promotion of African Literature. African Studies 58:1 (pp 105-122).    Sibiya, EDM. 2001a. Media and the Development of African-Language Literature: Ukhozi FM and Ilanga. Unpublished MA thesis, submitted to the University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts.    Sibiya, EDM. 2001b. Performance to Print and Print to Performance: Plays, Adaptation and Book Reading on South African Radio. Journal of African Cultural Studies, Vol 14, No 2, December 2001.    Wa Thiong'o, Ngugi. 1986. The Language of African Literature. In Decolonising the Mind. London: James Currey.    Woll, T. 1998. Publishing for Profit. London: Kogan Page. *  This essay has been adapted from Media and the Development and Promotion of African-Language Literature: Ukhozi FM and Ilanga, which was submitted in May 2001 by this author to the University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfilment of the Masters of Arts degree. 1  Bang, DN. "In Praise of Zulu Literature". Ilanga LaseNatal, NgoMgqibelo, April 21, 1951. 2  The likes of Groenewald (1983), Kunene and Kirsch (1967), and Maake (2000) give a historical development of literatures in African languages of South Africa, which includes specific titles in each of the indigenous languages. 3  See for example Maake's "Publishing and Perishing: Books, People and Reading in African Languages in South Africa" in Seeber, M and N Evans (eds). The Politics of Publishing in South Africa. London: Holger Ehling; and Scottsville: University of Natal Press, 2000:127-159. At this point I am reminded of the July/August 2000 Zimbabwe International Book Fair (ZIBF), where Chenjerai Hove, a famous Zimbabwean author of the Noma Award-winning novel, Bones (1989), accused his fellow writers of being "educated illiterates", meaning they neither buy nor read books. 4  This was originally meant for English and Afrikaans, but it was somehow decided to make it democratic by accommodating literatures in African Languages. As Mpe (forthcoming) brilliantly observes, these languages are differentially treated. Nguni and Sotho form two groups while English and Afrikaans are each still full categories on their own. Tshivenda and Xitsonga each get half the prize. 5  Maake, 1992; Maake 2000:149. 6  For a further discussion of literary awards, see Mpe's (forthcoming) African-Language Publishing and Book Promotion in South Africa: Some Development and Ironies. An unpublished paper just submitted for possible publication, Department of African Literature, School of Literature and Language Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. See also Maake (2000), and Sibiya (2001a) 7  The conditions under which Afrikaans literature grew were favoured the language itself when it was afforded official status of being the second official language of the Union of South Africa in 1924. Afrikaner-owned publishing houses worked for the promotion of Afrikanerism. African languages can learn from this case is that the development of literature should be a joint venture, an inclusion of various elements and bodies. 8  Mpe, 2000:1. 9  Maake, 2000:150. 10  This article appeared in Ilanga LaseNatal, Saturday, 9 June 1951. 11  These are the only series I am aware of. I once heard about Shuter's Indlovu series for adult readers, but cannot remember even two titles in the series. Other publishers may have series which are not so popular, and I do not think they have sufficiently contributed to the development or promotion of literature in African languages. 12  Maake, 2000: 138. 13  This observation is deduced from my reading of these publishers' A-forms, the details of which I may not disclose because of their confidentiality. 14  See Nomvula Maduna's Mamela Africa Series: Assessing the Significance of Themes in African Languages Publishing. An unpublished Honours Publishing Studies Research report, Department of African Literature, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. 2000 15  Legodi, T (1999), pp 1-20; also cited in Maake (2000:151). 16  In my (March 2001) conversation with Mrs Lettie Maseko of Bard Publishers in Pretoria, she gave her opinion about the said novel. 17  A letter dated February 2001. 18  Some publishers, whose names I will not mention (at least not here), approved these short stories for publication. 19  The University of the Witwatersrand administers this annual Award and it intends encouraging budding authors rather than giving the prize to established writers; since it began in 1985, the fifteenth prize was awarded in 2001. As far as I know it was not awarded in 2002 and 2003. Sithole completed his Honours degree in Publishing Studies in 1998 in the same University. 20  For an in-depth discussion of the spectacular nature of South African writing in the 1970s and '80's, see Njabulo Ndebele, 1986; Lewis Nkosi, 1988; and Albie Sachs, 1990. 21  See Maake, 2000:146. 22  Here I recall the great names of Vilakazi and Nyembezi. 23  See his Publishing For Profit (1998), pp 163-164. 24  Bower, 1998:5. 25  I have personally been actively involved in popularising my novel, Kungasa Ngifile. It worked very well. 26  Maake, 2000:155. 27  Sibiya, EDM (2001b). "Performance to Print and Print to Performance: Plays, Adaptations and Book Reading on South African radio" in the Journal of African Cultural Studies, Vol 14, No 2, Dec 2001. 28  Mkhize used to review literature every last Tuesday of every month on the then Radio Zulu (now Ukhozi FM).

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